Emily Velasco whipped up some cool test patterns to help me diagnose problems with my port of AnimatedGIF Arduino library example, rendering to my ESP_8_BIT_composite color video out library. But that wasn’t where she first noticed a problem. That honor went to the new animated GIF she created upon my request for something nifty to demonstrate my library.

This started when I copied an example from the AnimatedGIF library for the port. After I added the code to copy between my double buffers to keep them consistent, I saw it was a short clip of Homer Simpson from The Simpsons TV show. While the legal department of Fox is unlikely to devote resources to prosecute authors of an Arduino library, I was not willing to take the risk. Another popular animated GIF is Nyan Cat, which I had used for an earlier project. But despite its online spread, there is actual legal ownership associated with the rainbow-pooping pop tart cat. Complete with lawsuits enforcing that right and, yes, an NFT. Bah.

I wanted to stay far away from any legal uncertainties. So I asked Emily if she would be willing to create something just for this demo as an alternate to Homer Simpson and Nyan Cat. For the inspirational subject, I suggested a picture she posted of her cat sleeping on her giant squid pillow.

A wider view pic.twitter.com/6BHmLRbNW1

— Emily Velasco (@MLE_Online) April 30, 2021

A few messages back and forth later, Emily created Cat and Giant Squid complete with a backstory of an intergalactic adventuring duo.

In gratitude, the squid rescued the cat from its life of eating scraps in alleys and, they've been traveling the universe ever since, discovering new things, helping others, and generally enjoying each other's company.

— Emily Velasco (@MLE_Online) May 14, 2021

Here they are on an seamlessly looping background, flying off to their next adventure. Emily has released this art under the CC BY-SA (Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike) 4.0 license. And I have happily incorporated it into ESP_8_BIT_composite library as an example of how to show animated GIFs on an analog TV. When I showed the first draft, she noticed a visual artifact that I eventually diagnosed to missing X-axis offsets. After I fixed that, the animation played beautifully on my TV. Caveat: the title image of this post is hampered by the fact it’s hard to capture a CRT on camera.

Thanks to a little debugging, I figured out my ESP_8_BIT_composite color video out Arduino library required a new optional feature to make my double-buffering implementation compatible with libraries that rely on a consistent buffer such as AnimatedGIF. I was happy that my project, modified from one of the AnimatedGIF examples, was up and running. Then I swapped out its test image for other images, and it was immediately clear the job is not yet done. These test images were created by Emily Velasco and released under Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 license (CC BY-SA 4.0).

This image resulted in the flawed rendering visible as the title image of this post. Instead of numbers continously counting upwards in the center of the screen, various numbers are rendered at wrong places and not erased properly in the following screens. Here is another test image to get more data

Between the two test images and observing where they were on screen, I narrowed the problem. Animated GIF files might only update part of the frame and when that happens, the frame subset is to be rendered at a X/Y offset relative to the origin. The Y offset was accounted for correctly, but the X offset went unused meaning delta frames were rendering against the left edge rather than the correct offset. This problem was not in my library, but inherited from the AnimatedGIF example. Where it went unnoticed because the trademark-violating animated GIF used by that example didn’t have an X-axis offset. Once I understood the problem, I went digging into AnimatedGIF code. Where I found the unused X-offset, and added it into the example where it belonged. These test images now display correctly, but they’re not terribly interesting to look at. What we need is a cat with galactic squid friend.

Once I resolved all the problems I knew existed in version 1.0.0 of my ESP_8_BIT_composite color video out Arduino library, I started looking around for usage scenarios that would unveil other problems. In that respect, I can declare my next effort a success.

My train of thought started with ease of use. Sure, I provided an adaptation of Adafruit’s GFX library designed to make drawing graphics easy, but how could I make things even easier? What is the easiest way for someone to throw up a bit of colorful motion picture on screen to exercise my library? The answer came pretty quickly: I should demonstrate how to display an animated GIF on an old analog TV using my library.

This is a question I’ve contemplated before in the context of the Hackaday Supercon 2018 badge. Back then I decided against porting a GIF decoder and wrote my own run-length encoding instead. The primary reason was that I was short on time for that project and didn’t want to risk losing time debugging an unfamiliar library. Now I have more time and can afford the time to debug problems porting an unfamiliar library to a new platform. In fact, since the intent was to expose problems in my library, I fully expected to do some debugging!

I looked around online for an animated GIF decoder library written in C or C++ code with the intent of being easily portable to microcontrollers. Bonus if it has already been ported to some sort of Arduino support. That search led me to the AnimatedGIF library by Larry Bank / bitbank2. The way it was structured made input easy: I don’t have to fuss with file I/O or SPIFFS, I can feed it a byte array. The output was also well matched to my library, as the output callback renders the image one horizontal line at a time, a great match for the line array of ESP_8_BIT.

Looking through the list of examples, I picked ESP32_LEDMatrix_I2S as the most promising starting point for my test. I modified the output call from the LED matrix I2S interface to my Adafruit GFX based interface, which required only minor changes. On my TV I can almost see a picture, but it is mostly gibberish. As the animation progressed, I can see deltas getting rendered, but they were not matching up with their background.

After chasing a few dead ends, the key insight was noticing my noisy background of uninitialized memory was flipping between two distinct values. That was my reminder I’m performing double-buffering, where I swap between front and back buffers for every frame. AnimatedGIF is efficient about writing only the pixels changed from one frame to the next, but double buffering meant each set of deltas was written over not the previous frame, but two frames prior. No wonder I ended up with gibberish.

Aside: The gibberish amusingly worked in my favor for this title image. The AnimatedGIF example used a clip from The Simpsons, copyrighted material I wouldn’t want to use here. But since the image is nearly unrecognizable when drawn with my bug, I can probably get away with it.

The solution is to add code to keep the two buffers in sync. This way libraries minimizing drawing operations would be drawing against the background they expected instead of an outdated background. However, this would incur a memory copy operation which is a small performance penalty that would be wasted work for libraries that don’t need it. After all of my previous efforts to keep API surface area small, I finally surrendered and added a configuration flag copyAfterSwap. It defaults to false for fast performance, but setting it to true will enable the copy and allow using libraries like AnimatedGIF. It allowed me to run the AnimatedGIF example, but I ran into problems playing back other animated GIF files due to missing X-coordinate offsets in that example code.

Getting insight into computational processing workload was not absolutely critical for version 1.0.0 of my ESP_8_BIT_composite Arduino library. But now that the first release is done, it was very important to get those tools up and running for the development toolbox. Now that people have a handle on speed, I turned my attention to the other constraint: memory. An ESP32 application only has about 380KB to work with, and it takes about 61K to store a frame buffer for ESP_8_BIT. Adding double-buffering also doubled memory consumption, and I had actually half expected my second buffer allocation to fail. It didn’t, so I got double-buffering done, but how close are we skating to the edge here?

Fortunately I did not have to develop my own tools here to gain insight into memory allocation, ESP32 SDK already had one in the form of heap_caps_print_heap_info() For my purposes, I called it with the MALLOC_CAP_8BIT flag because pixels are accessed at the single byte (8 bit) level. Here is the memory output running my test sketch, before I allocated the double buffers. I highlighted the blocks that are about to change in red:

Heap summary for capabilities 0x00000004:
  At 0x3ffbdb28 len 52 free 4 allocated 0 min_free 4
    largest_free_block 4 alloc_blocks 0 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 1
  At 0x3ffb8000 len 6688 free 5872 allocated 688 min_free 5872
    largest_free_block 5872 alloc_blocks 5 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 6
  At 0x3ffb0000 len 25480 free 17172 allocated 8228 min_free 17172
    largest_free_block 17172 alloc_blocks 2 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 3
  At 0x3ffae6e0 len 6192 free 6092 allocated 36 min_free 6092
    largest_free_block 6092 alloc_blocks 1 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 2
  At 0x3ffaff10 len 240 free 0 allocated 128 min_free 0
    largest_free_block 0 alloc_blocks 5 free_blocks 0 total_blocks 5
  At 0x3ffb6388 len 7288 free 0 allocated 6784 min_free 0
    largest_free_block 0 alloc_blocks 29 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 30
  At 0x3ffb9a20 len 16648 free 5784 allocated 10208 min_free 284
    largest_free_block 4980 alloc_blocks 37 free_blocks 5 total_blocks 42
  At 0x3ffc1f78 len 123016 free 122968 allocated 0 min_free 122968
    largest_free_block 122968 alloc_blocks 0 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 1
  At 0x3ffe0440 len 15072 free 15024 allocated 0 min_free 15024
    largest_free_block 15024 alloc_blocks 0 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 1
  At 0x3ffe4350 len 113840 free 113792 allocated 0 min_free 113792
    largest_free_block 113792 alloc_blocks 0 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 1
  Totals:
    free 286708 allocated 26072 min_free 281208 largest_free_block 122968

I was surprised at how fragmented the memory space already was even before I started allocating memory in my own code. There are ten blocks of available memory, only two of which are large enough to accommodate an allocation for 60KB. Here is the memory picture after I allocated the two 60KB frame buffers (and two line arrays, one for each frame buffer.) With the changed sections highlighted in red.

Heap summary for capabilities 0x00000004:
  At 0x3ffbdb28 len 52 free 4 allocated 0 min_free 4
    largest_free_block 4 alloc_blocks 0 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 1
  At 0x3ffb8000 len 6688 free 3920 allocated 2608 min_free 3824
    largest_free_block 3920 alloc_blocks 7 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 8
  At 0x3ffb0000 len 25480 free 17172 allocated 8228 min_free 17172
    largest_free_block 17172 alloc_blocks 2 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 3
  At 0x3ffae6e0 len 6192 free 6092 allocated 36 min_free 6092
    largest_free_block 6092 alloc_blocks 1 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 2
  At 0x3ffaff10 len 240 free 0 allocated 128 min_free 0
    largest_free_block 0 alloc_blocks 5 free_blocks 0 total_blocks 5
  At 0x3ffb6388 len 7288 free 0 allocated 6784 min_free 0
    largest_free_block 0 alloc_blocks 29 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 30
  At 0x3ffb9a20 len 16648 free 5784 allocated 10208 min_free 284
    largest_free_block 4980 alloc_blocks 37 free_blocks 5 total_blocks 42
  At 0x3ffc1f78 len 123016 free 56 allocated 122880 min_free 56
    largest_free_block 56 alloc_blocks 2 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 3
  At 0x3ffe0440 len 15072 free 15024 allocated 0 min_free 15024
    largest_free_block 15024 alloc_blocks 0 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 1
  At 0x3ffe4350 len 113840 free 113792 allocated 0 min_free 113792
    largest_free_block 113792 alloc_blocks 0 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 1
  Totals:
    free 161844 allocated 150872 min_free 156248 largest_free_block 113792

The first big block, which previously had 122,968 bytes available, became the home of both 60KB buffers leaving only 56 bytes. That is a very tight fit! A smaller block, which previously had 5,872 bytes free, now had 3,920 bytes free indicating that’s where the line arrays ended up. A little time with the calculator with these numbers arrived at 16 bytes of overhead per memory allocation.

This is good information to inform some decisions. I had originally planned to give the developer a way to manage their own memory, but I changed my mind on that one just as I did for double buffering and performance metrics. In the interest of keeping API simple, I’ll continue handling the allocation for typical usage and trust that advanced users know how to take my code and tailor it for their specific requirements.

The ESP_8_BIT line array architecture allows us to split the raw frame buffer into smaller pieces. Not just a single 60KB allocation as I have done so far, it can accommodate any scheme all the way down to allocating 240 horizontal lines individually at 256 bytes each. That will allow us to make optimal use of small blocks of available memory. But doing 240 instead of 1 allocation for each of two buffers means 239 additional allocations * 16 bytes of overhead * 2 buffers = 7,648 extra bytes of overhead. That’s too steep of a price for flexibility.

As a compromise, I will allocate in the frame buffer in 4 kilobyte chunks. These will fit in seven out of ten available blocks of memory, an improvement from just two. Each frame would consist of 15 chunks. This works out to an extra 14 allocations * 16 bytes of overhead * 2 buffers = 448 bytes of overhead. This is a far more palatable price for flexibility. Here are the results with the frame buffers allocated in 4KB chunks, again with changed blocks in red:

Heap summary for capabilities 0x00000004:
  At 0x3ffbdb28 len 52 free 4 allocated 0 min_free 4
    largest_free_block 4 alloc_blocks 0 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 1
  At 0x3ffb8000 len 6688 free 784 allocated 5744 min_free 784
    largest_free_block 784 alloc_blocks 7 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 8
  At 0x3ffb0000 len 25480 free 724 allocated 24612 min_free 724
    largest_free_block 724 alloc_blocks 6 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 7
  At 0x3ffae6e0 len 6192 free 1004 allocated 5092 min_free 1004
    largest_free_block 1004 alloc_blocks 3 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 4
  At 0x3ffaff10 len 240 free 0 allocated 128 min_free 0
    largest_free_block 0 alloc_blocks 5 free_blocks 0 total_blocks 5
  At 0x3ffb6388 len 7288 free 0 allocated 6776 min_free 0
    largest_free_block 0 alloc_blocks 29 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 30
  At 0x3ffb9a20 len 16648 free 1672 allocated 14304 min_free 264
    largest_free_block 868 alloc_blocks 38 free_blocks 5 total_blocks 43
  At 0x3ffc1f78 len 123016 free 28392 allocated 94208 min_free 28392
    largest_free_block 28392 alloc_blocks 23 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 24
  At 0x3ffe0440 len 15072 free 15024 allocated 0 min_free 15024
    largest_free_block 15024 alloc_blocks 0 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 1
  At 0x3ffe4350 len 113840 free 113792 allocated 0 min_free 113792
    largest_free_block 113792 alloc_blocks 0 free_blocks 1 total_blocks 1
  Totals:
    free 161396 allocated 150864 min_free 159988 largest_free_block 113792

Instead of almost entirely consuming the block with 122,968 bytes leaving just 56 bytes, the two frame buffers are now distributed among smaller blocks leaving 28,329 contiguous bytes free in that big block. And we still have anther big block free with 113,792 bytes to accommodate large allocations.

Looking at this data, I could also see allocating in smaller chunks would have led to diminishing returns. Allocating in 2KB chunks would have doubled the overhead but not improved utilization. Dropping to 1KB would double the overhead again, and only open up one additional block of memory for use. Therefore allocating in 4KB chunks is indeed the best compromise, assuming my ESP32 memory map is representative of user scenarios. Satisfied with this arrangement, I proceeded to work on my first and last bug of version 1.0.0: PAL support.

[Code for this project is publicly available on GitHub]

Before I implemented double-buffering for my ESP_8_BIT_composite Arduino library, the only way we know we’re overloaded is when we start seeing visual artifacts on screen. After I implemented double-buffering, when we’re overloaded we’ll see the same data shown for two or more frames because the back buffer wasn’t ready to be swapped. A binary good/no-good feedback is better than nothing but it would be frustrating to work with and I knew I could do better. I wanted to collect some performance metrics a developer can use to know how close they’re running to the edge before going over.

This is another feature I had originally planned as some type of configurable data. My predecessor ESP_8_BIT handled it as a compile-time flag. But just as I decided to make double-buffering run all the time in the interest of keeping the Arduino API easy to use, I’ve decided to collect performance metrics all the time. The compromise is that I only do so for users of the Adafruit GFX API, who have already chosen ease of use over maximum raw performance. The people who use the raw frame buffer API will not take the performance hit, and if they want performance metrics they can copy what I’ve done and tailor it to their application.

The key counter underlying my performance measurement code goes directly down to a feature of the Tensilica CPU. CCount, which I assume to mean cycle count, is incremented at every clock cycle. When the CPU is running at full speed of 240MHz, it increments by 240 million within each second. This is great, but the fact it is a 32-bit unsigned integer limits its scope, because that means the count will overflow every 2³² / 240,000,000 = 17.895 seconds.

I started thinking of ways to keep a 64-bit performance counter in sync with the raw CCount, but in the interest of keeping things simple I abandoned that idea. I will track data through each of these ~18 second periods and, as soon as CCount overflows, I’ll throw it all out and start a new session. This will result in some loss of performance data but it eliminates a ton of bookkeeping overhead. Every time I notice an overflow, statistics from the session is output to logging INFO level. The user can also query the running percentage of the session at any time, or explicitly terminate a session and start a new one for the purpose of isolating different code.

The percentage reported is the ratio of of clock cycles spent in waitForFrame() relative to the amount of time between calls. If the drawing loop does no work, like this:

void loop() {
  videoOut.waitForFrame();
}

Then 100% of the time is spent waiting. This is unrealistic because it’s not useful. For realistic drawing loops that does more work, the percentage will be lower. This number tells us roughly how much margin we have to spare to take on more work. However, “35% wait time” does not mean 35% CPU free, because other work happens while we wait. For example, the composite video signal generation ISR is constantly running, whether we are drawing or waiting. Actual free CPU time will be somewhere lower than this reported wait percentage.

The way this percentage is reported may be unexpected, as it is an integer in the range from 0 to 10000 where each unit is a percent or a percent. The reason I did this is because the floating-point unit on an ESP32 imposes its own overhead that I wanted to avoid in my library code. If the user wants to divide by 100 for a human-friendly percentage value, that is their choice to accept the floating-point performance overhead. I just didn’t want to force it on every user of my library.

Lastly, the session statistics include frames rendered & missed, and there is an overflow concern for those values as well. The statistics will be nonsensical in the ~18 second session window where either of them overflow, though they’ll recover by the following session. Since these are unsigned 32-bit values (uint32_t) they will overflow at 2³² frames. At 60 frames per second, that’s a loss of ~18 seconds of data once every 2.3 years. I decided not to worry about it and turn my attention to memory consumption instead.

[Code for this project is publicly available on GitHub]

Eliminating work done for pixels that will never been seen is always a good change for efficiency. Next item on the to-do list is to work on pixels that will be seen… but we don’t want to see them until they’re ready. Version 1.0.0 of ESP_8_BIT_composite color video out library used only a single buffer, where code is drawing to the buffer at the same time the video signal generation code is reading from the buffer. When those two separate pieces of code overlap, we get visual artifacts on screen ranging from incomplete shapes to annoying flickers.

The classic solution to this is double-buffering, which the precedent ESP_8_BIT did not do. I hypothesize there were two reasons for this: #1 emulator memory requirements did not leave enough for a second buffer and #2 emulators sent its display data in horizontal line order, managing to ‘race ahead” of the video scan line and avoid artifacts. But now both of those are gone. #1 no longer applies because emulators had been cut out, freeing memory. And we lost #2 because Adafruit GFX is concentrated around vertical lines so it is orthogonal to scan line and no longer able to “race ahead” of it resulting in visual artifacts. Thus we need two buffers. A back buffer for the Adafruit GFX code to draw on, and a front buffer for the video signal generation code to read from. At the end of each NTSC frame, I have an opportunity to swap the buffers. Doing it at that point ensures we’ll never try to show a partially drawn frame.

I had originally planned to make double-buffering an optional configurable feature. But once I saw how much of an improvement this was, I decided everyone will get it all of the time. In the spirit of Arduino library style guide recommendations, I’m keeping the recommended code path easy to use. For simple Arduino apps the memory pressure would not be a problem on an ESP32. If someone wants to return to single buffer for memory needs, or maybe even as a deliberate artistic decision to have flickers, they can take my code and create their own variant.

Knowing when to swap the buffer was easy, video_isr() had a conveniently commented section // frame is done. At that point I can swap the front and back buffers if the back buffer is flagged as ready to go. My problem was that I didn’t know how to signal the drawing code they have a new back buffer and they can start drawing the next frame. The existing video_sync() (which I use for my waitForFrame() API) forecasts the amount of time to render a frame and uses vTaskDelay() which I am somewhat suspicious of. FreeRTOS documentation has the disclaimer that vTaskDelay() has no guarantee that it will resume at the specified time. The synchronization was thus inferred rather than explicit, and I wanted something that ties the two pieces of code more concretely together. My research eventually led to vTaskNotifyGiveFromISR() I can use in video_isr() to signal its counterpart ulTaskNotifyTake() which I will use for a replacement implementation of video_sync(). I anticipate this will prove to be a more reliable way for the application code to know they can start working on the next frame. But how much time do they have to spare between frames? That’s the next project: some performance metrics.

[Code for this project is publicly available on GitHub]

It’s always good to have someone else look over your work, they find things you miss. When Emily Velasco started writing code to run on my ESP_8_BIT_composite library, her experiment quickly ran into flickering problems with large circles. But that’s not as embarrassing as another problem, which triggered ESP32 Core Panic system reset.

When I started implementing a drawing API, I specified X and Y coordinates as unsigned integers. With a frame buffer 256 pixels wide and 240 pixels tall, it was a great fit for 8-bit unsigned integers. For input verification, I added a check to make sure Y did not exceed 240 and left X along as it would be a valid value by definition.

When I put Adafruit’s GFX library on top of this code, I had to implement a function with the same signature as Adafruit used. The X and Y coordinates are now 16-bit numbers, so I added a check to make sure X isn’t too large either. But these aren’t just 16-bit numbers, they are int16_t signed integers. Meaning coordinate values can be negative, and I forgot to check that. Negative coordinate values would step outside the frame buffer memory, triggering an access violation, hence the ESP32 Core Panic and system reset.

I was surprised to learn Adafruit GFX default implementation did not have any code to enforce screen coordinate limits. Or if they did, it certainly didn’t kick in before my drawPixel() override saw them. My first instinct is to clamp X and Y coordinate values within the valid range. If X is too large, I treat it as 255. If it is negative, I treat it as zero. Y is also clamped between 0 and 239 inclusive. In my overrides of drawFastHLine and drawFastVLine, I also wrote code to gracefully handle situations when their width or heights are negative, swapping coordinates around so they remain valid commands. I also used the X and Y clamping functions here to handle lines that were partially on screen.

This code to try to gracefully handle a wide combination of inputs added complexity. Which added bugs, one of which Emily found: a circle that is on the left or right edge of the screen would see its off-screen portion wrap around to the opposite edge of the screen. This bug in X coordinate clamping wasn’t too hard to chase down, but I decided the fact it even exists is silly. This is version 1.0, I can dictate the behavior I support or not support. So in the interest of keeping my code fast and lightweight, I ripped out all of that “plays nice” code.

A height or a width is negative? Forget graceful swapping, I’m just not going to draw. Something is completely off screen? Forget clamping to screen limits, stuff off-screen are just not going to get drawn. Lines that are partially on screen still need to be gracefully handled via clamping, but I discarded all of the rest. Simpler code leaves fewer places for bugs to hide. It is also far faster, because the fastest pixels are those that we never draw. These optimizations complete the easiest updates to make on individual buffers, the next improvement comes from using two buffers.

[Code for this project is publicly available on GitHub]

I had a lot of fun building a color picker for 256 colors available in the RGB332 color space, gratuitous swoopy 3D animation and all. But at the end of the day it is a tool in service of the ESP_8_BIT_composite video out library. Which has its own to-do list, and I should get to work.

The most obvious work item is to override some Adafruit GFX default implementations, starting with the ones explicitly recommended in comments. I’ve already overridden fillScreen() for blanking the screen on every frame, but there are more. The biggest potential gain is the degenerate horizontal-line drawing method drawFastHLine() because it is a great fit for ESP_8_BIT, whose frame buffer is organized as a list of horizontal lines. This means drawing a horizontal line is a single memset() which I expect to be extremely fast. In contrast, vertical lines via drawFastVLine() would still involve a loop iterating over the list of horizontal lines and won’t be as fast. However, overriding it should still gain benefit by avoiding repetitious work like validating shared parameters.

Given those facts, it is unfortunate Adafruit GFX default implementations tend to use VLine instead of the HLine that would be faster in my case. Some defaults implementations like fillRect() were easy to switch to HLine, but others like fillCircle() is more challenging. I stared at that code for a while, grumpy at lack of comments explaining what it is doing. I don’t think I understand it enough to switch to HLine so I aborted that effort.

Since VLine isn’t ESP_8_BIT_composite’s strong suit, these default implementations using VLine did not improve as much as I had hoped. Small circles drawn with fillCircle() are fine, but as the number of circles increase and/or their radius increase, we start seeing flickering artifacts on screen. It is actually a direct reflection of the algorithm, which draws the center vertical line and fills out to either side. When there is too much to work to fill a circle before the video scanlines start, we can see the failure in the form of flickering triangles on screen, caused by those two algorithms tripping over each other on the same frame buffer. Adding double buffering is on the to-do list, but before I tackle that project, I wanted to take care of another optimization: clipping off-screen renders.

[Code for this project is publicly available on GitHub]

I honestly didn’t expect my little project to be accepted into the Arduino Library Manager index on my first try, but it was. Now that it is part of the ecosystem, I feel obligated to record my mental to-do list in a format that others can reference. This lets people know that I’m aware of these shortcomings and see the direction I’ve planned to take. And if I’m lucky, maybe someone will tackle them before I do and give me a pull request. But I can’t realistically expect that, so putting them down on record would at least give me something to point to. “Yes, it’s on the to-do list.” So I wrote down the known problems in the issues section of the project.

First and foremost problem is that I don’t know if PAL code still works. I intended to preserve all the PAL functionality when I extracted the ESP_8_BIT code, but I don’t know if I successfully preserved it all. I only have a NTSC TV so I couldn’t check. And even if someone tells me PAL is broken, I wouldn’t be able to do anything about it. I’m not dedicated enough to go out and buy a PAL TV just for testing. [bootrino] helpfully tells me there are TV that understand both standards, which I didn’t know. I’m not dedicated enough to go out and get one of those TV for the task, but at least I know to keep an eye open for such things. This one really is waiting for someone to test and, if there are problems, submit a pull request.

The other problems I know I can handle. In fact, I had a draft of the next item: give the option to use caller-allocated frame buffer instead of always allocating our own. I had this in the code at one point, but it was poorly tested and I didn’t use it in any of the example sketches. The Arduino API Style Guide suggests trimming such extraneous options in the interest of keeping the API surface area simple, so I did that for version 1.0.0. I can revisit it if demand comes back in the future.

One thing I left behind in ESP_8_BIT and want to revive is a performance metric of some sort. For smooth display the developer must perform all drawing work between frames. The waitForFrame() API exists so drawing can start as soon as one frame ends, but right now there’s no way to know how much room was left before next frame begins. This will be useful as people start to probe the limits.

After performance metrics are online, that data can be used to inform the next phase: performance optimizations. The only performance override I’ve done over the default Adafruit GFX library was fillScreen() since all the examples call that immediately after waitForFrame() to clear the buffer. There are many more candidates to override, but we won’t know how much benefit they give unless we have performance metrics online.

The final item on this initial list of issues is support for double- or triple-buffering. I don’t know if I’ll ever get to it, but I wrote it down because it’s such a common thing to want in a graphics stack. This is a rather advanced usage and it consumes a lot of memory. At 61KB per buffer, the ESP32 can’t really afford many of them. At the very least this needs to come after the implementation of user-allocated buffers, because it’s going to be a game of Tetris to find enough memory in between developer code to create all these buffers and they know best how they want to structure their application.

I thought I had covered all the bases and was feeling pretty good about things… but I had a blind spot that Emily Velasco spotted immediately.